The Nature of Abigail’s Villainy in The Crucible

A dynamic antagonist, Abigail Williams from Arthur Miller’s The Crucible is a great example of how a character can be molded by personal desires and a work’s setting to become a villain. Seemingly innocent, orphaned adolescent Abigail ultimately causes hysteria in the town of Salem from her frivolity and selfishness. The reasoning and origins of Abigail’s malice demonstrate the setting’s influence on the inhabitants of Salem during the 1962 witch trials. Abigail is introduced as Parris’ niece. At the beginning of the play, Arthur Miller provides what might be an explanation to the start of Abigail’s needy nature as she relays the story of how she became orphaned to her friends. Abigail explains that she witnessed her parents being killed by indians when she was a child. This harsh past and lack of a good authority male figure (Parris is a character that is extremely paranoid and obsessed with his reputation; definitely not fatherly or nurturing) explains her initial attraction to John Proctor; her older, married, employer before the play begins. Abigail’s affair with Proctor is the fundamental start of the witch trials. Had she never had the affair, she’d never have fallen for Proctor, therefore she wouldn’t want to kill his wife in order to have him back. The Puritan way of thinking and strict religious system in Salem paved the way for a villain to arise. Abigail’s villainy is significant because it helps the reader become familiarized with the environment of Salem Massachusetts, the Christian religion it thrived off of, and how these combined ultimately caused the witch trials. The people who practiced this intense Christianity had no spiritual method to relinquish guilt for their sins. In turn, this led to the people of Salem having to find their own outlets for their guilt. Along with the stress of guilt, the individuals of Salem have to worry about the constant need to make themselves adequate for the community. Reputation is extremely important, and being associated with anti-christ figures and ideas is completely unacceptable. These stresses combined raise the perfect type of people for Abigail to use to aid her in her plan to rid of Elizabeth. After practicing witch craft with her, Abigail’s friends feel guilty for the sin. Abigail’s failure to feel guilt or this (or any of other sin she commits throughout the play) is what attains her success is causing havoc in Salem. After being found out for their anti-Christian activities in the woods, Abigail begins accusing other random people in the community of witchcraft. The other girls follow suit, shuffling their guilt to someone else to feel self assurance. By accusing other people the girls felt they had retrieved innocence. In a sense Abigail was able to use her friends without them noticing. Through her manipulation shows malevolence. Of course, Abigail didn’t mean to cause so much conflict. She only wanted one person dead; Elizabeth. Had she not began accusing other people of witch craft to save her name, the problem wouldn’t have blown up to epic proportions. This doesn’t make her any less of a villain, however. Many of the townspeople were hanged because of her selfishness. Her naivety and fervent want for Proctor blinded her from consequences. Covering up herself snowballed to her friends and then out into the community. This is particularly interesting because in any other setting the word of these girls wouldn’t even be considered let alone used as solid judgement in court. Abigail’s success in causing death to innocents in the community, despite her age and insignificant role in the community, further exemplifies the atmosphere of the Puritan religion. After analyzing Abigail’s character one can learn much about the behavior of other people as well. Everyone has desires that they wish to obtain. Some obstacles must be overcome in order to achieve these. Due to Abigail’s villainy conceit many people suffered. Not only were lives lost, but she never found the peace she wished for with Proctor. It’s important to realize that there are consequences for neglecting the well being of others for self gain.

Eat carbohydrates Essays

Eat carbohydrates Essays Eat carbohydrates Essay Eat carbohydrates Essay Name: Instructor: Course: Date: Eat carbohydrates Part 1: Misspelled words The essay makes use of informal languages such as â€Å"carbs† that was repeated numerous times. The spelling of other technical terms such as â€Å"Saccharide† and â€Å"oligosaccharides† Part 2: Grammatical Errors The essay has many wordiness mistakes. This is especially common where the vocabulary is not known for example â€Å"†¦There are so many people that are health conscious these days† instead of saying â€Å"†¦there are many health conscious people†. The essay also has many sentences starting with the word â€Å"but†. The rest of the document also needed to be proofread for possible typing errors. The mixture of tenses was another issue. The writer also confused the first person and third person perspective. Part 3: Organizational suggestions The paper is very disorganized and uncategorized. The essay needs to be organized into distinct parts for example the introduction, body and conclusion. Part 4: Other Constructive Criticism Academic papers require the use of formal language. To that extent, slang, abbreviations and corruption of words is not allowed as they give the essay an unprofessional impression.

Ethical Issues at the Radiology Department

Ethical Issues at the Radiology Department Introduction Being a radiographer means being very cautious and careful with instructions. It is especially important to follow the existing code of ethics once a patient and a radiographer do not speak the same language.Advertising We will write a custom case study sample on Ethical Issues at the Radiology Department specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Since the radiographer was not concerned with the fact that the patient could not speak English properly, the former broke the principles of radiography ethics by conducting a procedure that could harm the patient in the case study provided. History The case of ethics in radiography, which is discussed below, is quite simple. According to the case details, an elderly (56-year-old) Asian woman, who had a feeding (nasogastric) tube implanted, was admitted into a hospital. In the hospital, she underwent a computer tomography on her brain. Due to the specifics of her condition (a feeding tube ), she had to have her chest and abdomen checked with X-rays every day for more than fifteen days, which is considered inacceptable due to exposure to great doses of radiation and the following negative effects on the functioning of the organs. Since the radiographer was aware of the threat that the procedure poses to people, it was imperative that the procedure should have been carried out less frequently or that the patient should have given a written consent for the radiography to be carried out. It seems that the procedure was not obligatory in the given case, since the patient supposedly felt well and did not need an urgent examination, yet the standard daily examination of the tube was still desirable (Duncan Warwick, 2011, para. 9). In order to avoid the threat of disclosing the patient’s personal data, including her name, it will be required that the patient should be nicknamed in order to address her without revealing her identity. The patient will be referred to as Xiu in the process of the case analysis and discussion.Advertising Looking for case study on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Patient Consent The patient’s consent is, in fact, one of the key issues in the study. First and most obvious, the case study in question never mentions that the informed consent was obtained in the first place. Indeed, according to the details of the study, the patient has not been provided with the explanations concerning the procedure. More to the point, since the patient was unable to give an informed consent in English, it is impossible to figure out if the patient actually understood what she was told; neither is it possible to define whether the radiographers actually received the confirmation for the procedure to take place. The case description is admittedly obscure when it touches upon the discussion of the specifics of the procedure between the radiograph ers and the patient’ it can be suspected that there was no informed consent retrieved at all. Ethical Dilemma The ethical dilemma faced by the radiographer in the given case is, in fact, very complicated. On the one hand, it is imperative that the informed consent of the patient should be obtained before the procedure is started. Performing radiography on a patient, who does not speak English and, therefore, is most likely to be unaware of the possible negative consequences of the radiography, seems unethical. Hence, it was obviously required that a translator should have been invited as the radiographer’s assistant. On the other hand, radiography is one of the procedures that must be carried out regularly; therefore, it was imperative that the patient should undergo the procedure as prescribed by the doctor. Hence, the radiographer faced a difficult choice between making sure that the feeding tube, which the patient’s life depended on, was in order, and prevent ing the patient from receiving an additional dose of radiation. The issue of informed consent, therefore, though doubtlessly relating directly to the case, is not the key ethical issue in it. It is the factor determining the impossibility of retrieving informed consent from the patient that matters in defining the ethical paradox in the given case.Advertising We will write a custom case study sample on Ethical Issues at the Radiology Department specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More To be more exact, the ethical concern in the case with Xiu can be defined as performing an urgent procedure on a patient, when it is clear that they do not understand what is happening due to the language barrier. It is obvious that in the environment specified above, the patient is practically unable to give their informed consent (Seiden, Galvan Lamm, 2006); therefore, the two ethical concerns (i.e., Xiu’s unawareness of the procedure consequences and the absence of her informed consent) should be included in the case. After all, the Code of conduct and ethics published by the Society of Radiographers specifies that a radiographer must satisfy themselves â€Å"that the appropriate informed consent has been gained prior to undertaking any examination or procedure and follow the SCoR guidelines in Consent to imaging and radiotherapy treatment examinations: an ethical perspective and good practice guide for the radiography workforce† (The Society of Radiographers, 2008, p. 6). Hence, both the principles of consent and communication (The Society of Radiographers, 2008, p. 5) were challenged in this case. Handling of Ethical Dilemma Though quite questionable, the decision made by radiographers seems quite adequate. Indeed, the negative effects of an excessive radiography session are considerably less threatening than the possible problems with the nasogastric tube and the following impossibility for Xiu to obtain food (Lamont, 2011). Despite the adequacy of the choice made by the radiographers, one still must address the issue of informed consent and the handling of the essential information related to the patient. Technically, the breach of the healthcare ethics is still evident, seeing that little to no investigation concerning the procedures that the patient had undergone by that time was conducted. According to the existing Code of practice for radiographers (2007), making sure that the radiography session complies with the prescriptions provided by the doctor is obligatory:Advertising Looking for case study on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Radiographers should not carry out a procedure that may be considered dangerous without first confirming instructions for the procedure with the person authorized who has made the request, and satisfying themselves that the instructions contain no error† (Australia Institute of Radiography, 2007, p. 3) Learning Outcomes The case study under consideration offers a lot to learn. It shows how flexible and resourceful a radiographer must be in order to facilitate the provision of the medical services of the finest quality and the protection of the patients from the possible threats to their health. More to the point, the study gives the information concerning the possible issues that a radiographer may face with a non English speaking patient. Consequently, the study encourages a radiographer to act more cautiously and make sure that the actions to be carried out comply with the existing instructions, as well as with the healthcare ethical principles. Finally, and most importantly , the case study makes a very valid point concerning the issue of informed consent. It is a very clever way of reminding a radiographer about the workplace ethics. What may seem a legitimate step in addressing the patient’s disorder and maintaining the patient’s safety may finally turn out to be a faulty move that will lead to drastic consequences. In a wider sense, the aforementioned piece of advice can be interpreted as a suggestion to be extremely cautious when it comes to retrieving any kind of information from non English speaking patients. It is obvious that, had the patient provided the radiographer with the related information, i.e., the fact that she had already had two brain computer tomographies and experienced fifteen radiographies in a row by that point, the radiography would have not been carried out. Therefore, the very fact that the patient did not speak English should have been a warning sign for the radiographer. The study, therefore, offers an import ant lesson in carrying out a specific procedure on a patient, who is unaware of what is going on due to the language issues. It is essential that the patient should know what is going on and what medical procedure they are going to undergo; thus, a patient will be able to inform the radiographer on the details that may conflict with the procedure in question and trigger major complexities. Conclusion Having a range of responsibilities and bound by the existing ethical code, a radiographer must be very careful in their work. It is essential to make sure that the procedures conducted meet the requirements and comply with the current medical standards. In addition, a radiographer must be able to communicate with the patient in order to avoid making harm to the latter. Once a patient and a radiographer understand each other, the amount of mistakes and misconceptions will be reduced to nil. Reference List Australia Institute of Radiography. (2007). Guidelines for professional conduct for radiographers, radiation therapists and sonographers. Melbourne, AU: Australia Institute of Radiography. Web. Duncan, K. Warwick, R. (2011). X-ray confirmation of nasogastric tube placement: documentation in patient notes. The Royal College of Radiologists. Web. Lamont, T. (2011). Checking placement of nasogastric feeding tubes in adults (interpretation of X ray images): summary of a safety report from the National Patient Safety Agency. The British Medical Journal, 342, 1–4. Web. Seiden, S. C., Galvan, C. Lamm, R. (2006). Role of medical students in preventing patient harm and enhancing patient safety. Quality and Safety in Healthcare, 15(4), 272–276. The Society of Radiographers. (2008). Code of conduct and ethics. London, UK: The Society of Radiographers.

Mind You Own Business Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Mind You Own Business - Essay Example Health care managers (HMOs, POSs and PPOs) coordinate and manage the quality and cost of health care (Themedica, 2006). Due to the global financial crisis, health care managers must employ good management skills in determining the services to offer, the costs to incur and how to allocate the funds. They are they creating more focus on preventive and comprehensive care services for enrollees and their families. Careful and considerate allocation of funds and economic management of the funds ensures that the operational costs are reduced without reducing the quality of service offered. Despite the health sector being a business, it does not operate like a typical business market. In a normal market, the consumer chooses what to take from the supplier whereas in the medical field the doctors choose what is best for the patient. The current economic status in the world has spear rocketed the cost of medical care. Political and social factors have contributed to the prevailing economic status. With high rates of unemployment, people are not being able to pay the cost of their medical services which is creating financial problems to the medical sector (Themedica, 2009). Economy specialists have prospected that in the next decade the rates of unemployment and cost of living will continue to increase. It is expected that the medical resources available will be strained by the expected population increase (Themedica, 2009). There is a need for the medical sector to make changes that will suit the current situation so that high-quality health care will be maintained. The sector should improve their services by employing the latest technology and researching on better

Applying Sociology to Public Practice Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Applying Sociology to Public Practice - Essay Example Sociology is defined as the 'scientific' study of the relationship between human social organization and human behavioural processes. Its early proponents and even sociologists today believe that they can develop a scientific way of studying mankind and his social nature in the same way as natural scientists have formulated a scientific approach to explain the physical world. Fundamental to the field is the notion that the relationship between human organization and social behaviour are subject to law-like processes and forces which can be revealed thru a systematic and careful observation and study. The theoretical models of causality should also be subject to empirical tests. (James, 1996) The problem with sociology which can be observed in the article authored by Francis et al (2007) entitled "Attitude toward Christianity among secondary school pupils in Northern Ireland: shifts in denominational differences" is that sociology tends to become unscientific. Sociology attempts to understand human behaviour not thru a set of a step-by-step analysis of characteristics of individuals but on the influence of interactions among individuals. It emphasizes the social forces present in a certain group which cannot be generalized to other groups much like the way scientific laws work. Social forces cannot be observed directly but must be inferred from human behaviour. In other words, there is no assurance that an observed and analyzed social phenomenon could be applied on another set of events. For example, the case for the article can only be found in Ireland. Sociology, therefore, becomes ambiguous. There is no finality in sociological pursuits because it is subjected to change and what is much more pressing is that mechanisms are often unidentifiable. Even if it was identified, there is always the question of finality. In the article by Francis et al, one can note that there was not even an attempt to determine the mechanism which caused the change in the regard for Christianity by male and female Irish children. All they did was to determine whether there was a change without even attempting to identify whether this was expected or whether it followed some kind of process. There was not even a discussion of a theoretical background discussing the mechanism of change for religious perception. They even conveniently stated that they did not deem it proper to know the underlying cause because it was out of the limits they have set. While it is good to know that there is an improvement in religious perception, wouldn't it have been more useful if one knows what is causing the chan ge so that it may be further developed Sociology will only assume the science mantle when it shakes off its reliance on first person subjective evaluations and surveys. The article itself depends widely on previous studies for comparison and does not even provide a scale of similarity with the procedures used. Most sociologists have little or no understanding of calculus yet they often present least-squares results as with the article. Sociology is for the most part verbal rather than quantitative. (James, 1996) Competing Perspectives As can be deduced from the previous discussion, there is a tendency for sociological knowledge to become of little value. According to Levin (2006), while there are indeed sociological researches that

Internet Banking at Citibank UK Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Internet Banking at Citibank UK - Essay Example Marketers are now focusing on existing customer development rather than just new customer acquisition. Major changes have occurred in the traditional view of customer defection rates, most noticeably in the banking industry where churn has increased from -10 percent in 2003 to almost +20 percent by 2005. These studies showed that the supposedly massive rates of customer inertia in banking is no longer a given. Banks need to fight for every customer, not only to capture each one but, more importantly, to retain them. One economic justification for this mindset change was the research finding that â€Å"it can cost five times more to obtain a new customer than to keep an existing one†. What started the trend towards customer loyalty was Reichheld who found that a 5 percent increase in loyalty can lead to a 25 to 85 percent increase in profitability.On the contrary, Reinartz and Kumar argued that whilst serving customers over a long period may be beneficial, long-term customers m ay not necessarily be profitable, and that managers should not equate customer retention with increased lifetime spending, decreased cost of service, and lower price sensitivity. They concluded that companies should study if long-term customers stay profitable, implying that if they are not, the business must jettison those customers who eat into profits.These were the concepts in our mind when we decided, exploring its look and feel and the products offered, and evaluating the over-all Internet-based customer experience.

Poverty in India Essay Example for Free

Poverty in India Essay Poverty is the deprivation of food, shelter, money and clothing that occurs when people cannot satisfy their basic needs. Poverty can be understood simply as a lack of money, or more broadly in terms of barriers to everyday life. It refers to a situation where a person is unable meet the basic necessities of life. Absolute poverty or destitution refers to the state of severe deprivation of basic human needs, which commonly includes food, water, sanitation, clothing, shelter, health care, education and information. The amount of income a person or family needs to purchase an absolute amount of the basic necessities of life. These basic necessities are identified in terms of calories of food, BTUs of energy, square feet of living space, etc. The problem with the absolute poverty level is that there really are no absolutes when in comes to consuming goods. Relative poverty views poverty as socially defined and dependent on social context, hence relative poverty is a measure of income inequality. Usually, relative poverty is measured as the percentage of population with income less than some fixed proportion of median income. There are several other different income inequality metrics, for example the Gini coefficient or the Theil Index. Relative poverty measures are used as official poverty rates in several developed countries. As such these poverty statistics measure inequality rather than material deprivation or hardship. The measurements are usually based on a persons yearly income and frequently take no account of total wealth. Definitions United Nations: Fundamentally, poverty is a denial of choices and opportunities, a violation of human dignity. It means lack of basic capacity to participate effectively in society. It means not having enough to food and clothing a family, not having a school or clinic to go to, not having the land on which to grow one’s food or a job to earn one’s living, not having access to credit. It means insecurity, powerlessness and exclusion of individuals, households and communities. It means susceptibility to violence, and it often implies living in marginal or fragile environments, without access to clean water or sanitation. World Bank: Poverty is pronounced deprivation in well-being, and comprises many dimensions. It includes low incomes and the inability to acquire the basic goods and services necessary for survival with dignity. Poverty also encompasses low  levels of health and education, poor access to clean water and sanitation, inadequate physical security, lack of voice, and insufficient capacity and opportunity to better one’s life. Copenhagen Declaration: Absolute poverty is a condition characterized by severe deprivation of basic human needs, including food, safe drinking water, sanitation facilities, health, shelter, education and information. It depends not only on income but also on access to social services. The term absolute poverty is sometimes synonymously referred to as extreme poverty. World Health Organisation: Poverty is associated with the undermining of a range of key human attributes, including health. The poor are exposed to greater personal and environmental health risks, are less well nourished, have less information and are less able to access health care; they thus have a higher risk of illness and disability. Conversely, illness can reduce household savings, lower learning ability, reduce productivity, and lead to a diminished quality of life, thereby perpetuating or even increasing poverty. Poverty line is the minimum level of income deemed adequate in a given country. In practice, like the definition of poverty, the official or common understanding of the poverty line is significantly higher in developed countries than in developing countries. The common international poverty line has in the past been roughly $1 a day. In 2008, the World Bank came out with a revised figure of $1.25 at 2005 purchasing-power parity (PPP). Determining the poverty line is usually done by finding the total cost of all the essential resources that an average human adult consumes in one year. Individual factors are often used to account for various circumstances, such as whether one is a parent, elderly, a child, married, etc. The poverty threshold may be adjusted annually. Below Poverty Line is an economic benchmark and poverty threshold used by the government of India to indicate economic disadvantage and to identify individuals and households in need of government assistance and aid. It is determined using various parameters which vary from state to state and within states. The present criteria are based on a survey conducted in 2002. Going into a survey due for a decade, Indias central government is undecided on criteria to identify families below poverty line. Poverty in India The problem of poverty and unemployment is considered as the biggest  challenge to development planning in India. High poverty levels are synonymous with poor quality of life, deprivation, malnutrition, illiteracy and low human resource development. The slogan of poverty eradication has been adopted by all political parties in one form or another and there is a national agreement for the goal of poverty alleviation. The national consensus on poverty alleviation provided the necessary condition for launching various schemes and programmes aimed at achieving this objective. But the persistence of poverty during all these years suggests that the national consensus on objectives did not and could not provide sufficient conditions for poverty alleviation. The starting point for estimating the number of households below the poverty line is a nutritional requirement per person per day at some base point. There is a debate on the minimum calorie requirement, and whether it should be the same for all parts of the country. Most acceptable figures are 2,400 calories per person per day in rural areas, and 2,200 calories per person per day in urban areas. The next step is to translate the nutrient requirement into monetary terms. The expenditure level of households which are able to spend the requisite amount to obtain the desired calories serves as the cut-off point, or the poverty line. To adjust the poverty line over a period of time, price variations have to be considered and an appropriate price deflator has to be selected. The problem arises in deciding upon such a deflator. Thus, the following elements mainly affect the magnitude of the poverty ratio: (i) the nutrition norm (translated into monetary terms); (ii) price deflator used to update the poverty line; and (iii) pro rata adjustment in the number of households in different expenditure classes to determine the number of households below and above the poverty line. Different assumptions and methods are used for these three purposes, which accounts for the different estimates provided by scholars. The Planning Commission has been estimating the incidence of poverty at the national and state level using the methodology contained in the report of the Expert Group on Estimation of Proportion and Number of Poor (Lakdawala Committee) and applying it to consumption expenditure data from the large sample surveys on consumer expenditure conducted by the NSSO (National Sample Survey Organisation) at an interval of approximately five years. Estimates of Poverty (Per cent) Year All India Rural Urban All India Poverty Ratio Rural Poverty Ratio Urban Poverty Ratio Number (per cent) Number (per cent) Number (per cent) (Million) (Million) (Million) 1973-74 321 54.9 261 56.4 60 49.0 1977-78 329 51.3 264 53.1 65 45.2 1983 323 44.5 252 45.7 71 40.8 1987-88 307 38.9 232 39.1 75 38.2 1993-94 320 36.0 244 37.3 76 32.4 1999-2000 260 26.1 193 27.1 67 23.6 2004-05 239 21.8 170 21.8 68 21.7 Problems caused due to poverty Human poverty measures suggest even worse outcomes than for income poverty in India. India has never been a good performer in human development terms, despite the much better indicators in some states, particularly Kerala. Overall, both health and education indicators have lagged well below those in other countries at similar levels of development and with similar per capita income. But food poverty has been of particular concern. Recent studies have shown alarming levels of hunger, especially in certain states of India. Studies by IFPRI and ISHI quoted in Banerjee (2008) suggest that most states in India rank somewhere among the poor Sub-Saharan countries:  Punjab, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh and Assam have a „serious‟ level of hunger; Madhya Pradesh fares worst in the „extremely alarming‟ cohort of hunger. All the other states record an „alarming‟ level of hunger, which is also the general ranking for the whole country. More appallingly, the situation appears to have worsened in the recent period of rapid economic growth. National Sample Surveys shows declining per capita calorie consumption, not only among the entire population, but also among the bottom quartiles, for which consumption was already very inadequate by international standards. Other indicators of both nutrition and health are also extreme. The latest National Family Health Survey for 2005–06 shows that the proportion of underweight children below the age of five years was 45.6 per cent in rural India and 32.7 per cent in urban India, indicating hardly any change from the previous survey undertaken eight years previously. More than one-third of the rural population was also underweight. Anaemia often a good indicator of nutritional deprivation was also widespread: 79.2 per cent of children aged 12–23 months and 56.2 per cent of ever-married women between 15 and 59 years were found to be anaemic. Conclusion Poverty Alleviation Programmes The poverty alleviation programme have been broadly classified into self-employment programmes, wage employment programmes, food safety programme and social security programmes. The focus is on the central government schemes only. It is not possible to map the special programmes of all the states. It must be noted here that some of the progressive states have added additional components or given further subsidy to enhance the benefits of the central schemes. For example, in the highly subsidized public distribution system of Andhra Pradesh, the BPL card holders were provided rice at Rs. 2 per kg. Self-employment programmes: This programme was started in 1970s in rural areas of the country in the name of Integrated Rural Development Programme (IRDP) to increase the source of income of small farmers and landless labourers. The beneficiaries were given subsidized credit, training, and infrastructure, so that they could find new sources of  earning. In this scheme, agricultural labourers and small farmers received new skills to involve in vocations other than cultivating land. They included fishery, animal husbandry, and forestry. In the 1980s, this scheme was extended to schedule castes and tribes, women and rural artisans. Wage employment programmes: The main purpose of the wage employment programmes is to provide a livelihood during the lean agricultural season as well as during drought and floods. Under these programmes, villagers worked to improve the village infrastructure such as deepening the village ponds, constructing village schools and improving the rural roads. Thus the programmes not only provided employment to the villagers but also improved village infrastructure and created village public assets. A positive fall out of this programme is that it created higher demand for village labour, thereby pushing up the wage of the labourer in the villages. Food security programmes: Meeting the very basic need of access to food is a major challenge to the government in the post-economic reform era. Those who are below poverty line are faced with the problem of meeting this very basic need. Starvation and hunger have been reported in different parts of the country, even in economically advanced states like Maharashtra. There is malnutrition in all age groups, especially among children. Problem of low birth weight due to under nutrition of mother during pregnancy and underweight of children are rampant in the country. The purchasing power of certain section of the society is so low that they cannot access food at the market price. They need the safety net of food subsidy. In this context, public distribution system or PDS assumes importance. Social security programmes: Social security programmes are meant for those who are at the bottom of the BPL facing destitution and desertion. The central government has launched the National Social Assistance Programme or NSAP in August 1995. Under NSAP, there are three schemes. The first one is the National Old Age Pension Scheme or NOAPS. A pension amount of Rs. 75 per month is given to those who are above the age of 65 years and are destitute without any regular source of income or support from any family members or relatives. Though it is a very useful scheme for the elderly destitute, the coverage of the programme was not satisfactory. In the year 1999-2000, 8.71 million eligible elderly were identified, but the scheme could reach out to only 5 million beneficiaries. It was found that the benefits really reached the  poor and the leakage rate was found to be low.